HUMAN WILDLIFE CONFLICT RESEARCH LIST
The Zambezi Valley Conservation Network endeavours to develop conservation information resources, that can assist and guide conservation stakeholders in their research, strategies and frameworks, as well as inform the public and conservation donors of the depth and complexity of our conservation issues.
As part of this offering, we have compiled a list of Human Wildlife Conflict (HWC) focused scientific research papers, which is the first phase of our HWC review project. The project seeks to investigate what HWC research and initiatives have been undertaken over the past forty years in Zimbabwe and the wider continent, and analyse the findings and outcomes. The primary outcome of this exercise will be a report that consolidates and summarise the list of research and initiatives, highlights the key factors, challenges, gaps and outcomes of the various HWC papers and projects, and pieces together a guiding framework of proposed best practices based on mitigation learnings and successes across the continent.
Below is a list of research papers which have been published online relating to human-wildlife conflict and co-existence across Zimbabwe, dating back to 1995. We welcome researchers and the wider conservation community to contribute to this list, as well as inform us of any queries or corrections as we endeavour to ensure it is accurate and constantly updated. The Zambezi Network welcomes copies of research not yet digitised or published online, and we will make every effort to digitise and host it.
TITLE
SUMMARY
DETAILS
The authors investigated why 22 known problem elephant bulls crossed the Zambezi River using GPS tracking.
Karidozo, M., Ferrell Osborn, C.C., Falls, V. and Langbauer, W., A Geospatial Analysis of Animal Movement: Why did the elephant cross the Zambezi?
Questionnaire surveys and field visits were used in this study to determine the extent of human-wildlife conflict issues in the Save Valley Conservancy.
Matseketsa, G., Muboko, N., Gandiwa, E., Kombora, D.M. and Chibememe, G., 2019. An assessment of human-wildlife conflicts in local communities bordering the western part of Save Valley Conservancy, Zimbabwe. Global Ecology and Conservation, 20, p.e00737.
This paper addresses the drivers and conservation implications of human wildlife conflict in Africa using case studies from various countries.
Nicole, B.F., 2019. An assessment of the human-wildlife conflict across Africa. Wildlife Population Monitoring.
The effectiveness of the use of two types of chili dispensers were tested in Hwange National Park to deter the approach of elephants as a low-cost and easy-to-use system.
Le Bel, S., Taylor, R., Lagrange, M., Ndoro, O., Barra, M. and Madzikanda, H., 2010. An easy-to-use capsicum delivery system for crop-raiding elephants in Zimbabwe: preliminary results of a field test in Hwange National Park. Pachyderm.
This ecological paper that focuses on the abundance and distribition of hippos in the Manjirenji Dam in Zimbabwe where the anthropogenic activities such as mining have forced the hippos to move to this dam and here they come into conflict with humans through crop raiding and direct encounters
Utete, B., Tsamba, J., Chinoitezvi, E. and Kavhu, B., 2017. Analysis of the abundance and spatial distribution of the common hippopotamus,(Hippopotamus amphibius) in the Manjirenji Dam, Zimbabwe, to inform conservation and detect human–wildlife conflict hot spots. African Journal of Ecology, 55(4), pp.754-759.
At three sites in northwestern Zimbabwe, the reports of livestock depredation by large predators like lion and spotted hyena were assessed. These sites were all rural communal land bordering a national park
Loveridge, A.J., Kuiper, T., Parry, R.H., Sibanda, L., Hunt, J.H., Stapelkamp, B., Sebele, L. and Macdonald, D.W., 2017. Bells, bomas and beefsteak: complex patterns of human-predator conflict at the wildlife-agropastoral interface in Zimbabwe. PeerJ, 5, p.e2898.
Discussions and interviews were conducted in four local communities adjacent to Northern Gonarezhou National Park to assess the effectiveness of CAMPFIRE efforts in the area
Gandiwa, E., Heitkönig, I.M., Lokhorst, A.M., Prins, H.H. and Leeuwis, C., 2013. CAMPFIRE and human-wildlife conflicts in local communities bordering northern Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe. Ecology and Society, 18(4).
This paper examines whether bees are an effective deterent preventing elephants from raiding crops in Zimbabwe
Karidozo, M. and Osborn, F.V., 2005. Can bees deter elephants from raiding crops? An experiment in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Pachyderm, (39), pp.26-32.
By examining the time taken to repel elephants from fields of various different methods currently used by farmers and comparing it to the use of capsicum oleoresin spray, the authors sought to investigate if the spray was a more effective deterrent
Osborn, F.V., 2002. Capsicum oleoresin as an elephant repellent: field trials in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. The Journal of Wildlife Management, pp.674-677.
Using questionnaires and free listing, the authors sought to investigate the knowledge base of local cattle owners living on the edges of conservation areas regarding livestock diseases and the potential role played by wildlife in disease transmission. These areas sampled were within the Greater Limpopo TFCA and the Kavango-Zambezi TFCA in Zimbabawe
de Garine-Wichatitsky, M., Miguel, E., Mukamuri, B., Garine-Wichatitsky, E., Wencelius, J., Pfukenyi, D.M. and Caron, A., 2013. Coexisting with wildlife in transfrontier conservation areas in Zimbabwe: Cattle owners’ awareness of disease risks and perceptions of the role played by wildlife. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 36(3), pp.321-332.
Seven villages within the mid Zambezi Valley were selected based on reported high levels of crop damage, and a mix of traditional and experimental methods were tested to deter elephants
Osborn, F.V. and Parker, G.E., 2002. Community-based methods to reduce crop loss to elephants: experiments in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Pachyderm, 33(32), p.e38.
This paper investigates the conflict that exisits between crocodiles and fishermen on Lake Kariba and examines the perspectives of those fishermen towards the percieved threat that the crocodiles present.
McGregor, J., 2005. Crocodile crimes: people versus wildlife and the politics of postcolonial conservation on Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. Geoforum, 36(3), pp.353-369.
By interviewing the heads of households and key informants and by hosting focus group discussions in the Save Valley Conservancy area, the authors wanted to investigate how willing farmers would be to financially contribute to human wildlife conflict management as well as to estimate the cost of this management
Mhuriro-Mashapa, P., Mwakiwa, E. and Mashapa, C., 2017. Determinants of communal farmers willingness to pay for human-wildlife conflict management in the periphery of Save Valley Conservancy, south eastern Zimbabwe. JAPS: Journal of Animal & Plant Sciences, 27(5).
This doctoral thesis makes use of the Levels of Conflict Model (LCM) to assess how human-human conflicts affect human-wildlife conflicts in the Chapoto Ward of northern Zimbabwe
Jani, V., 2018. Disputes, relationships and identity: analysing human-human conflicts as a basis for human-wildlife conflicts in the mid-Zambezi valley, northern Zimbabwe. Doctoral Thesis.
This paper is based on the work done in the PhD thesis listed above by Jani (2018) focused on how human-human conflict is linked to human-wildlife conflict
De Wit, A.H., Jani, V. and Webb, N.L., 2020. Disputes, relationships, and identity: a ‘levels of conflict’analysis of human-wildlife conflict as human-human conflict in the mid-Zambezi valley, Northern Zimbabwe. South African Geographical Journal, 102(1), pp.59-76.
As part of a larger objective, this paper investigates human-wildlife conflict and poaching in the southern lowveld region of Zimbabwe and the possible impact that the CAMPFIRE programme has had on alleviating those pressures
Tchakatumba, P.K., Gandiwa, E., Mwakiwa, E., Clegg, B. and Nyasha, S., 2019. Does the CAMPFIRE programme ensure economic benefits from wildlife to households in Zimbabwe?. Ecosystems and People, 15(1), pp.119-135.
The study recorded crop damage for two consecutive years to inform elephant management and to develop an effective system of crop damage reporting
Parker, G.E. and Osborn, F.V., 2001. Dual-season crop damage by elephants in eastern Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe. Pachyderm, 30, pp.49-56.
This study, conducted around the Save Valley Conservancy, sought to investigate the dynamics and causes of the illegal bushmeat trade in the area and provide possible solutions to mitigate this conflict
Lindsey, P.A., Romanach, S.S., Matema, S., Matema, C., Mupamhadzi, I. and Muvengwi, J., 2011. Dynamics and underlying causes of illegal bushmeat trade in Zimbabwe. Oryx, 45(1), pp.84-95.
This paper highlights the financial and ecological issues posed by illegal hunting for bushmeat and makes suggestions to reduce the impacts thereof
Lindsey, P.A., Romañach, S.S., Tambling, C.J., Chartier, K. and Groom, R., 2011. Ecological and financial impacts of illegal bushmeat trade in Zimbabwe. Oryx, 45(1), pp.96-111.
The authors investigated the damage done to trees by elephants in two state forests in Zimbabwe and assessed whether the economic benefits derived from the trophy hunting of elephants would outweigh the losses incurred by the damage elephants cause to the timber in the forests
Campbell, B.M., Butler, J.R.A., Mapaure, I., Vermeulen, S.J. and Mashove, P., 1996. Elephant damage and safari hunting in Pterocarpus angolensis woodland in northwestern Matabeleland, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology, 34(4), pp.380-388.
An extensive camera trap survey within the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area in Zimbabwe was conducted to assess the demographic impact of wire-snare poaching for bushmeat of large carnivores as well as to identify hostpots of and drivers of bushmeat poaching in the area
Loveridge, A.J., Sousa, L.L., Seymour-Smith, J., Hunt, J., Coals, P., O’Donnell, H., Lindsey, P.A., Mandisodza-Chikerema, R. and Macdonald, D.W., 2020. Evaluating the spatial intensity and demographic impacts of wire-snare bush-meat poaching on large carnivores. Biological Conservation, 244, p.108504.
The effectiveness of Capsicum-based aerosol as an elephant repellent was tested in Hwange National Park as well as in Gokwe Communal Lands
Osborn, F.V. and Rasmussen, L.E.L., 1995. Evidence for the effectiveness of an oleo-resin capsicum aerosol as a repellent against wild elephants in Zimbabwe. Pachyderm, 20(21), pp.55-64.
Interviews were conducted with subsistence farmers in CAMPFIRE protected communities bordering Hwange and Zambwezi National Parks to determine their attitudes towards lion
Sibanda, L., Van der Meer, E., Hughes, C., Macdonald, E.A., Hunt, J.E., Parry, R.H., Dlodlo, B., Macdonald, D.W. and Loveridge, A.J., 2020. Exploring perceptions of subsistence farmers in northwestern Zimbabwe towards the African lion (Panthera leo) in the context of local conservation actions. African Journal of Wildlife Research, 50(1), pp.102-118.
This paper investigates the use of FrontlineSMS technology to quickly report on human-wildlife conflict events simulated during patrols.
Bel, S.L., Chavernac, D., Mapuvire, G. and Cornu, G., 2014. FrontlineSMS as an Early Warning Network for Human‐Wildlife Mitigation: Lessons Learned from Tests Conducted in Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 60(1), pp.1-13.
Questionnaires conducted in three communities adjacent to Gonarezhou National Park were assesed to determine the impacts of human-wildlife conflict on human security as well as the nature of the conflict
Pisa, L.S. and Katsande, S., 2021. Human Wildlife Conflict in Relation to Human Security in the Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe. International Journal of Earth Sciences Knowledge and Applications, 3(2), pp.98-106.
A baseline survey was used to determine the drivers, spatial and temporal dynamics, and frequency of human-wildlife conflict in the Hwange, Mbire and Chiredzo districts of Zimbabwe
Le Bel, S., Murwira, A., Mukamuri, B., Czudek, R., Taylor, R. and La Grange, M., 2011. Human wildlife conflicts in southern Africa: riding the whirl wind in Mozambique and in Zimbabwe. The importance of biological interactions in the study of biodiversity, pp.283-322.
This study investigates the experiences of human-wildlife conflict by the people living on the Omay communal land using as well as assesses the measures taken by the local council to mitigate that conflict
Jeke, L., 2014. Human-Wildlife coexistence in omay communal land, nyaminyami rural district council in zimbabwe. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(20), pp.809-809.
This document lists various methods used by various countries around the world to mitigate human-elephant conflict
Osei-Owusu, Y., 2018. Human-Wildlife Conflict: Elephants-Technical Manual.
This paper investigates the human-wildlife conflict experienced by the Tonga-speaking people in northwestern Zimbabwe whose livelihoods depend on fishing in Lake Kariba and growing crops and raising livestock in a fairly arid an unforgiving landscape
Matanzima, J. and Marowa, I., 2022. Human–Wildlife Conflict and Precarious Livelihoods of the Tonga-Speaking People of North-Western Zimbabwe. In Livelihoods of Ethnic Minorities in Rural Zimbabwe (pp. 107-122). Springer, Cham.
This paper explores the economic and social aspects of the human-wildlife conflict experienced by those living in the Mbire district of Zimbabwe using informant interviews and questionnaire surveys.
Musiwa, A.R. and Mhlanga, W., 2020. Human–wildlife conflict in Mhokwe Ward, Mbire District, North‐East Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology, 58(4), pp.786-795.
A combination of interview data as well as law enforcement data was used in this study to determine how illegal hunting activites are affected in northern Gonarezhou National Park by the economic state of the area as well as the efforts of law enforcement
Gandiwa, E., Heitkönig, I.M., Lokhorst, A.M., Prins, H.H. and Leeuwis, C., 2013. Illegal hunting and law enforcement during a period of economic decline in Zimbabwe: A case study of northern Gonarezhou National Park and adjacent areas. Journal for Nature Conservation, 21(3), pp.133-142.
This extensive report summarieses a workshop held on illegal hunting and the bushmeat trade across several African countries, including Zimbabwe
Lindsey, P., Balme, G., Becker, M., Begg, C., Bento, C., Bocchino, C., Dickman, A., Diggle, R., Eves, H., Henschel, P. and Lewis, D., 2015. Illegal Hunting and the Bush-Meat Trade in Savanna Africa.
This paper summaries literature on human-wildlife conflict from various developing countries including Zimbabwe
Gemeda, D.O. and Meles, S.K., 2018. Impacts of human-wildlife conflict in developing countries. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 22(8), pp.1233-1238.
This study examined the occurances of conflict between people and crocodiles and hippos at Lake Kariba to determine how the presence of these animals have affected their safety and livelihoods
Marowa, I., Matanzima, J. and Nhiwatiwa, T., 2021. Interactions between humans, crocodiles, and hippos at Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. Human–Wildlife Interactions, 15(1), p.25.
The use of chili plants was investigated to deter wildlife due to its low palatability as well as to provide income to the households that grow it in the Guruve District of Northern Zimbabwe.
Parker, G.E. and Osborn, F.V., 2006. Investigating the potential for chilli Capsicum spp. to reduce human-wildlife conflict in Zimbabwe. Oryx, 40(3), pp.343-346.
This paper re-evaluates preexisiting human-elephant conflict mitigation methods and investigates recent innovations with references to work done in Zimbabwe
Hoare, R., 2012. Lessons from 15 years of human-elephant conflict mitigation: Management considerations involving biological, physical and governance issues in Africa. Pachyderm, 51, pp.60-74.
The authors assessed reports of livestock depredation by painted hunting dogs in the Nyamandlovu region of Zimbabwe
Rasmussen, G.S.A., 1999. Livestock predation by the painted hunting dog Lycaon pictus in a cattle ranching region of Zimbabwe: a case study. Biological Conservation, 88(1), pp.133-139.
Using data from focus group discussions, interviews and field observations, this paper investigates the nature of human-wildlife conflict in northern Gonarezhou National Park examining key problem species and the methods used to mitigate the conflict
Gandiwa, E., Gandiwa, P. and Muboko, N., 2012. Living with wildlife and associated conflicts in a contested area within the Northern Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 14(6), pp.252-260.
The authors hypothesised that issues of human-elephant conflict are correlated to boundaries and that the establishment and enforcement of those boundaires could be a possible method to manage that conflict
Bel, S.L., Grange, M.L. and Czudek, R., 2016. Managing human–elephant conflict in Zimbabwe: a boundary perspective rather than a problematic species issue. In Problematic Wildlife (pp. 123-142). Springer, Cham.
This study examines the economic, ethical and social feasibility of hunting the inflated elephant populations to manage numbers as well as to provide a supply of bushmeat to local impoverished communities
Le Bel, S., Stansfield, F., La Grange, M. and Taylor, R., 2013. Managing local overabundance of elephants through the supply of game meat: the case of Savé Valley Conservancy, Zimbabwe. South African Journal of Wildlife Research-24-month delayed open access, 43(2), pp.103-119.
The authors present the challenges and opportunities that exist in the mitigation of human-python conflict within communities residing adjacent to Nyanga National Park
Dube, K.R. and Kavhu, B., 2022. Opportunities and challenges of human–python conflict intervention in local communities adjacent to Nyanga National Park, Zimbabwe. Conservation Science and Practice, 4(1), p.e589.
This paper investigates how human-wildlife conflict and coexistence affects tourism development in Victoria Falls
Mudimba, T., 2019. Perceptions of local residents and authorities on human–wildlife coexistence in Zimbabwe. University of Johannesburg (South Africa).
Through the use of interviews, this paper investigates the prevelence and dynamics of illegal hunting in communities adjacent to Gonarezhou National Park as well as the strategies in place to minimize this
Gandiwa, E., 2011. Preliminary assessment of illegal hunting by communities adjacent to the northern Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe. Tropical Conservation Science, 4(4), pp.445-467.
This paper summaries the knowledge and opinions of sixty-five experts regarding the pan-African trade in lion body parts
Williams, V.L., Loveridge, A.J., Newton, D.J. and Macdonald, D.W., 2017. Questionnaire survey of the pan-African trade in lion body parts. PloS one, 12(10), p.e0187060.
This paper discusses the use, drawbacks and benefits of chili pepper gas dispensers to deter problem elephants in Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique
Le Bel, S., La Grange, M. and Drouet, N., 2015. Repelling elephants with a chilli pepper gas dispenser: field tests and practical use in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe from 2009 to 2013.
Using questionnaire surveys and personal interviews, the authors aimed to estabish the perceptions of the residents of Kariba towards wildlife in the area and the human-wildlife conflict in the area
Svotwa, E., Ngwenya, J., Manyanhaire, O.T. and Jiyane, J., 2007. Residents perception of the human/wildlife conflict in Kariba Urban. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 9(2), pp.178-200.
This study aimed to identify trends that influence elephant raiding by analysing the nutritional makeup of food consumed by crop-raiding elephants over 2 years.
Osborn, F.V., 2004. Seasonal variation of feeding patterns and food selection by crop‐raiding elephants in Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology, 42(4), pp.322-327.
This study aimed at assesing the cost value of crops and livestock lost to wildlife as well as to identify the drivers and the measures that could be implemented to mitigate the conflict that occurs in the agricultural communities of Mutema-Musikavanhu
Mhuriro-Mashapa, P., Mwakiwa, E. and Mashapa, C., 2018. Socio-economic impact of human-wildlife conflicts on agriculture based livelihood in the periphery of save valley conservancy, southern Zimbabwe. The Journal of Plant and Animal Sciences, 28, pp.12-16.
This paper summarieses knowledge and reccomendations presented at the Convention on Biological Diversity regarding the bushmeat trade across several African countries including Zimbabwe
Lindsey, P.A., Balme, G., Becker, M., Begg, C., Bento, C., Bocchino, C., Dickman, A., Diggle, R.W., Eves, H., Henschel, P. and Lewis, D., 2013. The bushmeat trade in African savannas: Impacts, drivers, and possible solutions. Biological conservation, 160, pp.80-96.
This paper sought to investigate the economic value of the losses that agro-pastoralists suffer due to the depredation of their livestock by wild predators in the Gokwe communal land area
Butler, J.R., 2000. The economic costs of wildlife predation on livestock in Gokwe communal land, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology, 38(1), pp.23-30.
The authors present a review of various methods used to reduce crop damage by elephants as well as the variables that influence the success and failiure of these methods.
Osborn, F.V. and Parker, G.E., 2003. Towards an integrated approach for reducing the conflict between elephants and people: a review of current research. Oryx, 37(1), pp.80-84.
This paper investigates the illegal killing of elephants within the Mid-Zambezi Valley using data collected by field rangers operating in six protected areas
Gara, T.W., Ndaimani, H. and Chakuya, J., 2022. Trends in elephant poaching in the Mid-Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe: Lessons learnt and future outlook.
The authors investigated the factors that explain the spatial distribution of elephant poaching in the mid-Zambezi Valley using GIS and remotely sensed data
Sibanda, M., Dube, T., Bangamwabo, V.M., Mutanga, O., Shoko, C. and Gumindoga, W., 2016. Understanding the spatial distribution of elephant (Loxodonta africana) poaching incidences in the mid-Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe using Geographic Information Systems and remote sensing. Geocarto International, 31(9), pp.1006-1018.
Utilizing records from the Chirundu Elephant Programme team, this paper investigates the occurances of human-elephant conflict in an urban setting
Scrizzi, A., Le Bel, S., La Grange, M., Cornélis, D., Mabika, C.T. and Czudek, R., 2018. Urban human-elephant conflict in Zimbabwe: a case study of the mitigation endeavour.
This paper analyses the roles of environmental, economic and social variables and how they are affected by the conflict over the use of the riverine wetlands that humans and wildlife share
Matema, S., Eilers, C.H., van der Zijpp, A.J. and Giller, K.E., 2022. Wetlands in drylands: Use and conflict dynamics at the human–wildlife interface in Mbire District, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology.
This paper highlights and details seven management areas, particularly leadership, intellegence and funding, that have been crucial in allowing Malilangwe Wildlife Reserve to create a successful anti-poaching systems
Ball, M., Wenham, C., Clegg, B. and Clegg, S., 2019. What does it take to curtail rhino poaching? Lessons learned from twenty years of experience at Malilangwe Wildlife Reserve, Zimbabwe. Pachyderm, 60, pp.96-104.
This paper investigates the impact of governance on Community Based Natural Resource Management and uses the human-lion conflict in the Mbire district to illustrate this
Matema, S. and Andersson, J.A., 2015. Why are lions killing us? Human–wildlife conflict and social discontent in Mbire District, northern Zimbabwe. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 53(1), pp.93-120.
This landmark study in Zimbabwe analyses the impacts and factors that contribute to vehicle collisions with large mammals along the Harare-Chirundu road in a protected area
Gandiwa, E., Mashapa, C., Muboko, N., Chemura, A., Kuvaoga, P. and Mabika, C.T., 2020. Wildlife-vehicle collisions in Hurungwe Safari Area, northern Zimbabwe. Scientific African, 9, p.e00518.
